Zika threatens to become a huge worldwide pandemic

The Aedes aegypti mosquito which transmits Zika virus (as well as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever) represents a high risk for global transmission. This virus comes from Africa, the Zika forest in Uganda, where it was discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey. In May 2015, the first local cases were recorded in Brazil, surpassing 1.5 million cases in December of the same year. By March 2016, local transmission of Zika was recognized in 34 countries. Its clinical condition is similar to dengue febrile illness, although milder. The final geographical distribution area is constantly expanding. Recently, it has been associated with cases of Guillain-Barr ′e syndrome in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Venezuela and Suriname. Microcephaly was documented in Brazil. This article discusses some factors that contributed to the spread of Zika virus in South America. Climate change associated with the events of the phenomenon of“El Ni?o”is also analyzed. The biggest concern is how quickly Zika is spreading around the world and that it could be far more dangerous than previously thought. Zika virus infection, by its explosive potential, has every chance of becoming a global pandemic.

Will there be a cure for HIV/AIDS? Making the dream a reality

It has been more than 30 years since AIDS was introduced in people's daily life, and it is a milestone that causes taboos, myths and prejudices. At that time, a patient told me his feelings, and he was very convincing:“I am horrified of living and afraid of dying.”Three decades later, AIDS infection is not a death sentence anymore. First, doctors could make that infected patients did not die from the disease;then, that the medication which kept them alive was not so toxic. And finally, that the treatments were more comfortable. And once at this point, the possibility that the virus may disappear from the body is a more realistic goal than ever. The story of AIDS has changed and, for the first time, we can foresee in the short term the beginning of the end of the pandemic. Now it is not about whether the cure is possible or not, but about when we will have it. This current mo-mentum, so hard to get, should be maintained. We have never been so close to achieving this goal. Although the end of the pandemic is close, this is not enough. It is worrying that some world leaders have absolved themselves of responsibility for not stopping or at least having understood the explosion of the pandemic as if it was a natural disaster. “Zero tolerance for HIV”requires a profound understanding of the stigma and discrimination of the infected people to finally get rid of the epidemic of fear and the devastation that the pandemic caused.

Adult female of Strongyloides stercoralis in respiratory secretions

<p><b>OBJECTIVE</b>To communicate the presence of adult females, rabditoid larvae and eggs of Strongyloides stercoralis (S. stercoralis) in the respiratory secretions obtained by tracheal aspirate from a HIV-negative patient who was suffering from polymyositis, and treated with corticoids and amethopterin and assisted by pneumonia.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>The respiratory secretions submitted to the Parasitology Laboratory of the Muñiz Hospital were made more concentrated by centrifugation (1 500 r/min for 15 seconds). Wet mount microscopy was performed with the pellet.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>It revealed adult females, rabditoid larvae and eggs of S. stercoralis. Further parasitological studies performed after the start of the treatment with ivermectin on fresh fecal samples, gastric lavages and tracheal aspirates showed scanty mobile filariform and rabditoid larvae of the same parasite.</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS</b>The presence of adult female S. stercoralis which has never been observed before in the clinical samples submitted to our Laboratory for investigation can be considered as an indirect marker of the severe immunosupression of the patient.</p>

Adult female of Strongyloides stercoralis in respiratory secretions

Objective: To communicate the presence of adult females, rabditoid larvae and eggs of Strongyloides stercoralis (S. stercoralis) in the respiratory secretions obtained by tracheal aspirate from a HIV-negative patient who was suffering from polymyositis, and treated with corticoids and amethopterin and assisted by pneumonia. Methods: The respiratory secretions submitted to the Parasitology Laboratory of the Mu?iz Hospital were made more concentrated by centrifugation (1 500 r/min for 15 seconds). Wet mount microscopy was performed with the pellet. Results: It revealed adult females, rabditoid larvae and eggs of S. stercoralis. Further parasitological studies performed after the start of the treatment with ivermectin on fresh fecal samples, gastric lavages and tracheal aspirates showed scanty mobile filariform and rabditoid larvae of the same parasite. Conclusions: The presence of adult female S. stercoralis which has never been observed before in the clinical samples submitted to our Laboratory for investigation can be considered as an indirect marker of the severe immunosupression of the patient.

Pulmonary coinfection by Pneumocystis jiroveci and Cryptococcus neoformans

We communicate the diagnosis by microscopy of a pulmonary coinfection produced by Cryptococcus neoformans and Pneumocystis jiroveci, from a respiratory secretion obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage of an AIDS patient. Our review of literature identified this coinfection as unusual presentation. Opportunistic infections associated with HIV infection are increasingly recognized. It may occur at an early stage of HIV-infection. Whereas concurrent opportunistic infections may occur, coexisting Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) and disseminated cryptococcosis with cryptococcal pneumonia is uncommon. The lungs of individuals infected with HIV are often affected by opportunistic infections and tumours and over two-thirds of patients have at least one respiratory episode during the course of their disease. Pneumonia is the leading HIV-associated infection. We present the case of a man who presented dual Pneumocystis jiroveci and cryptococcal pneumonia in a patient with HIV. Definitive diagnosis of PCP and Cryptococcus requires demonstration of these organisms in pulmonary tissues or fluid. In patients with < 200/microliter CD4-lymphocytes, a bronchoalveolar lavage should be performed. This patient was successfully treated with amphotericin B and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole. After 1 week the patient showed clinical and radiologic improvement and was discharged 3 weeks later.

Infections and inequalities:anemia in AIDS, the disadvantages of poverty

Objective:To study anemia in AIDS patients and its relation with socioeconomic, employment status and educational levels. Methods:A total number of 442 patients who visited the Infectious Diseases University Hospital in Buenos Aires, Argentina were included in the study. Patients were dividied into two groups, i.e. one with anemia and the other without anemia. Anemia epidemiology and its relationship with educational level, housing, job situation, monthly income, total daily caloric intake and weekly intake of meat were evaluated. Results: Anemia was found in 228 patients (54%). Comparing patients with or without anemia, a statistically significant difference was found (P<0.000 1) in those whose highest educational level reached was primary school, who lived in a precarious home, who had no stable job or were unable to work, whose income was less than 30 dollars per month, whose meat consumption was less than twice a week or received less than 8 000 calories per day. Conclusions:The high prevalence of anemia found in poor patients with AIDS suggests that poverty increases the risk to suffer from this hematological complication. The relationship between economic development policies and AIDS is complex. Our results seem to point to the fact that AIDS epidemic may affect economic development and in turn be affected by it. If we consider that AIDS affects the economically active adult population, despite recent medical progress it usually brings about fatal consequences, especially within the poorest sectors of society where the disease reduces the average life expectancy, increases health care demand and tends to exacerbate poverty and iniquity.

Pulmonary coinfection by Pneumocystis jiroveci and Cryptococcus neoformans

We communicate the diagnosis by microscopy of a pulmonary coinfection produced by Cryptococcus neoformans and Pneumocystis jiroveci, from a respiratory secretion obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage of an AIDS patient. Our review of literature identified this coinfection as unusual presentation. Opportunistic infections associated with HIV infection are increasingly recognized. It may occur at an early stage of HIV-infection. Whereas concurrent opportunistic infections may occur, coexisting Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) and disseminated cryptococcosis with cryptococcal pneumonia is uncommon. The lungs of individuals infected with HIV are often affected by opportunistic infections and tumours and over two-thirds of patients have at least one respiratory episode during the course of their disease. Pneumonia is the leading HIV-associated infection. We present the case of a man who presented dual Pneumocystis jiroveci and cryptococcal pneumonia in a patient with HIV. Definitive diagnosis of PCP and Cryptococcus requires demonstration of these organisms in pulmonary tissues or fluid. In patients with < 200/microliter CD4-lymphocytes, a bronchoalveolar lavage should be performed. This patient was successfully treated with amphotericin B and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole. After 1 week the patient showed clinical and radiologic improvement and was discharged 3 weeks later.

Diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis using molecular biology technology

Objective:To present an integrated molecular biology dedicated system for tuberculosis diagnosis.Methods:One hundred and five sputum specimens from patients strongly suspected by clinical parameters of tuberculosis were studied by Ziehl-Neelsen staining, by cultivation on solid medium and by a balanced heminested fluorometricPCR system (OrangeG3TB) that could preserve worker safety and produce a rather pure material free of potential inhibitors. DNA amplification was performed in a low cost tuberculosis termocycler-fluorometer. Produced double stranded DNA was flurometrically detected. The whole reaction was conducted in one single tube which would not be opened after adding the processed sample in order to minimize the risk of cross contamination with amplicons.Results: The assay was able to detect30 bacillus per sample mL with99.8% interassay variation coefficient.PCR was positive in23 (21.9%) tested samples (21 of them were smear negative). In our study it showed a preliminary sensitivity of 94.5% for sputum and an overall specificity of98.7%.Conclusions:Total run time of the test is4 h with2.5 real working time. AllPCR positive samples are also positive by microbiological culture and clinical criteria. Results show that it could be a very useful tool to increase detection efficiency of tuberculosis disease in low bacilus load samples. Furthermore, its low cost and friendly using make it feasible to run in poor regions.

Enfermedades transmitidas por los alimentos: Análisis del riesgo microbiológico / Risk analysis of foodborne diseases: Microbial risk assessment

The basic goals of risk assessment include the following: to identify potentially hazardous situations and apply appropriate methods to estimate the likelihood that a hazard occurs. In The uncertainty in that estimate, to provide alternative solutions to reduce the risk, estimate the effectiveness of those solutions, provide information to base a risk management decision, and estimate the uncertainty associated with the analysis. Risk analysis provides the rational framework for assembling and then analysing the evidence relating to risk and presenting the results in a form that is easy to understand and then act upon fairly and effectively. Progress made is no excuse for arrogance. The present review is definitely not designed as the last word on risk analysis for foodborne diseases. Rather, this review has been designed to continue an evolving and necessary process and to provide a reference point that indicates the state of development in 2010.

Las metas básicas del análisis de riesgo incluyen las siguientes: identificar las situaciones potencialmente peligrosas, aplicar los métodos apropiados para estimar la probabilidad que un peligro ocurra, y en la incertidumbre en esa estimación, proporcionar las soluciones alternativas para reducir el riesgo, estimar la eficacia de esas soluciones, proporcionar la información sobre las que se base una decisión de la gestión de riesgos, y estimar la incertidumbre asociada a la evaluación. El análisis de riesgos constituye un sistema de referencia coherente para reunir y analizar indicios sobre los factores de riesgo, y también para presentar los resultados de modo inteligible y obrar después eficazmente. Pero los progresos realizados no pueden excusar la arrogancia. La presente revisión no pretende sentar cátedra sobre el análisis de riesgo microbiano, más bien está pensado como una etapa más de un proceso necesario y permanente, como un jalón que describe el estado de cosas en 2010.

Diagnóstico de criptococosis a partir de lesiones cutáneas / Diagnosis of cryptococcosis in cutaneous lesions

Se realizó el diagnóstico de criptococosis en un paciente con lesiones cutáneas de aspecto moluscoide, presentes en gran número en el rostro, sospechadas clínicamente de ser provocadas por Histoplasma capsulatum. El paciente, posteriormente diagnosticado como VIH positivo, presentó además Cryptococcus neoformans en el LCR y fue tratado con anfotericina B endovenosa. Con material obtenido por escarificación de las lesiones se realizaron extendidos y practicaron cultivos. Aplicadas a los extendidos, las coloraciones de Giemsa, Grocott y mucicarmín de Mayer, permitieron la observación de levaduras redondas y capsuladas que en los cultivos en agar semillas de girasol desarrollaron colonias de color pardo que correspondieron a Cryptococcus neoformans.

Diagnosis of cryptococcosis was performed in a patient with multiple cutaneous Muluscum contagiosumlike lesions in the face, clinically suspected as produced by Histoplasma capsulatum. The patient, after being diagnosed HIV positive, also showed Cryptococcus neoformans in the CSF, and was treated with intravenous amphotericin B. Clinical samples from the skin lesions were obtained and smears stained by Giemsa, Grocott and Mayer's mucicarmin were performed. Part of these samples, obtained by scrapping the ulcers, were suspended in isotonic saline solution and cultivated in Sabouraud dextrose agar and sunfloweragar; Cryptococcus neoformans colonies were identified.

Amenaza del virus Chikungunya: la globalización de las enfermedades transmitidas por insecto vector / The Chikungunya threat: the globalization of vectorborne diseases

El brote de infección Chikungunya (CHIKV) que se produjo en el verano de 2007 en una zona templada del norte de Italia, constituye un nuevo modelo para la difusión de una enfermedad tropical fuera de los lugares convencionales, esta situación ha sido causada principalmente, por la peligrosa mezcla de la gran población de un competente vector, el mosquito tigre de Asia, y la posibilidad de que una persona regrese de la zona de la difusión normal de CHIKV durante la fase de viremia asintomática. Teniendo en cuenta las dificultades para controlar la propagación de Aedes albopictus y el gran número de personas que viajan hacia y desde los ámbitos de la difusión normal de las enfermedades transmitidas por vectores tropicales, pensamos que la epidemia de 2007 podría ser sólo la primera de una serie de posibles brotes. En conclusión, esta epidemia urbana de la infección CHIKV en un país templado, determina una nueva perspectiva en la preparación para las inesperadas infecciones emergentes por el virus, las que deben ser afrontadas mediante una estrategia combinada de difusión de vigilancia de vectores, y el diagnóstico inmediato de cualquier caso sospechoso de importación transmitido por vectores de enfermedades exóticas.

The outbreak of CHIKV infection that occurred in summer 2007 in a temperate area of northern Italy constitues a new model for the diffusion of a tropical disease outside the conventional locations; this situation has been caused mainly by the dangerous mixture of the large population of a highly competent vector, the Asian tiger mosquito, and the possibility that an individual comes back from the area of normal diffusion of CHIKV during the asymptomatic viremic stage. Considering the difficulties in controlling the spread of Aedes albopictus and the large number of people travelling to and from the areas of normal diffusion of vector-borne tropical diseases, we think that the 2007 epidemic could be only the first of a possible series of these aoutbreaks. In conclusion, this urban epidemic of CHIKV infection in a temperate country determines a new perspective in the preparedness to unexpected emerging virus infections that must be faced by using a combined strategy of vector diffusion monitoring and immediate diagnosis of any suspected cases of imported vector-borne exotic disease.

Dengue y fiebre hemorrágica dengue: su historia y su resurgimiento como problema de salud pública global: progresos y desafíos / Dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever: its history and resurgence as a global public health problem: progress and challenges

El primer brote conocido de epidemias de dengue o enfermedad símil dengue ocurrió en 1779 y 1780 en Egipto e Indonesia y en 1780 en los EE.UU (Filadelfia). Está claro que el dengue y otros arbovirus con ecología similar han tenido una distribución extensa en zonas tropicales en los últimos 200 años. Históricamente, Asia ha sido el érea de endemicidad más alto, con los cuatro serotipos del virus dengue circulando en los grandes centros urbanos de la mayoría de los países...La Fiebre Hemorrágica por Dengue (FHD) y el Síndrome de Choque por Dengue (SCD), son las manifestaciones severas y/o fatales de la fiebre por dengue. Las epidemias de FHD/SCD ocurren sobre todo en países del sudeste asiático, donde afectan principalmente a los niños y se asocian con altas tasas de letalidad. El advenimiento del transporte aéreo comercial del jet en los años '60 promovió el mecanismo ideal para que el virus del dengue fuera transportado por las personas que habian visitado áreas endémicas y viajaban durante el período de incubación. La incidencia de dengue ha aumentado marcadamente desde los años '60, primero en Asia, luego en el Pacífico y las Américas y finalmente en Africa. Es notorio la mayor parte del mundo tropical, con una población estimada de 2,5 mil millones, está en peligro de la infección dengue...El uso de larvicidas y de insecticidas durante brotes tiene algunas limitaciones. Los esfuerzos ahora se están centrando en la educación sanitaria y la participación de la comunidad en un intento por controlar los vectores eliminando o reducienddo los sitios de cría. En la ausencia de una vacuna para protegerse de la infección dengue, la prevención y la contención de los brotes del dengue requerirán un control del vector con eficacia a largo plazo, con la participación de la comunidad y la vigilancia epidemiológica agresiva.

The first reported epidemics of dengue or dengue-like disease occurred in 1779 and 1780 in Egypt and Indonesia and in 1780 in the USA (Philadelphia). It is clear that dengue and other arboviruses with similar ecology had a widespread distribution in the tropics as long as 200 years ago. Historically, Asia has been the area of highest endemicity, with all four dengue serotypes circulating in the large urban centres in most countries... Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) and Dengue Shock Syndrome (DSS) are the severe and/or fatal clinical manifestations of dengue fever. Epidemics of DHF/DSS occur mainly in the southeast Asian countries where children are seriously affected and high case-fatality ratio is annually reported. The advent of commercial jet air transport in the 1960s promoted the ideal mechanism for the carriage of dengue virus by persons who had visited endemic areas and were travelling during the incubation period. The incidence of dengue infection has increased markedly since the 1960s, first in Asia then in the Pacific and Americas and finally in Africa. It appears that most of the tropical world, with an estimated population of 2.5 billion, is at risk of infection with dengue...The use of larvicides and insecticides during aoutbreaks has some limitations. Efforts are now focusing on health education and community participation in an attempt to control the vector(s) by eliminating or reducing the breeding sites. In the absence of a dengue vaccine for public health use at present, prevention and containment of dengue autbreaks will require an effective long-term vector control with community participation and aggressive epidemiological surveillance.

La radiación a la mesa / Radiation on the dining table

Zero tolerance to bacterial contamination means considering the acceptance of "radiation on the table". The process of food irradiation has been extensively studied, nevertheless its use remains a matter of some controversy. Despite unanimous agreement within the medical community of the safety of this procedure, occasional concerns arise from the consumers. Acommon consumer misconception is that irradiationmay turn the food "radioactive". A significant number of scientific studies on the topic were analyzed. We found no scientific study demonstrating that consumption of irradiated food might pose a risk to consumers. All studies conclude that food irradiation at the appropriate dose required to reduce contamination is safe and does not affect its nutritional valué. In order to emphasize the issue we discuss the potential benefit vs harm of irradiation of food contaminated with E. coli 0157: H7. The association of this bacteria with severe disease and death has been clearly established in contrast with the lack of a demonstrated risk due to meat irradiation. We conclude that the risks of food irradiation remains "unknown" simply because, after four decades of research, none has been identified. In contrast to the risks of acquiring a food transmitted bacterial disease, the risk of irradiation is negligible.

Tolerancia cero a la contaminación bacteriana implica considerar la inclusión de "la radiación a la mesa". La irradiación es uno de los métodos de procesado de alimentos que se han estudiado de forma más extensa y estricta; sin embargo, su aplicación sigue siendo materia de discusión. Incluso si la inocuidad está bien establecida (hay acuerdo unánime entre la comunidad científica), de vez en cuando surgen preguntas de los consumidores. Es importante destacar que no hay ningún estudio científico consistente y reproducible, que demuestre o sugiera que el consumo de un alimento irradiado podría suponer un riesgo para la salud de los consumidores. Creemos que esta revisión es un aporte importante al conocimiento. Es necesario desmentir los errores generalizados sobre la irradiación, especialmente la idea de que los alimentos se tornan radioactivos. Se analizó una cantidad considerable de investigaciones científicas difundidas en publicaciones especializadas. De ellas surge que los alimentos irradiados con la dosis necesaria para alcanzar el objetivo mi-crobiológico deseado, se consideran inocuos y saludables para el consumo y adecuados desde un punto de vista nutricional. Para ser más claros, nadie pondría en duda que Escherichia coli 0157: H7 puede causar la muerte, la carne irradiada no. En definitiva, los riesgos de la irradiación de los alimentos son desconocidos, simplemente porque después de cuatro décadas de investigaciones, no se ha encontrado ninguno. Este es un argumento de suficiente peso, contra los riesgos conocidos de contraer una enfermedad bacteriana transmitida por alimentos.

Participación comunitaria en la prevención y el control del dengue: una enfermedad tropical urbana desatendida / Community participation in dengue prevention and control: an urban neglected tropical disease

La fiebre de dengue es causada por un Flavivirus, y diseminada por la mordedura del mosquito A. aegypti. El dengue no es generalmente fatal, pero la infección con uno de cuatro serotipos puede aumentar la susceptibilidad posterior a otros serotipos, dando por resultado la fiebre hemorrágica dengue altamente peligrosa (DHF) o síndrome shock dengue. WHO estima que 2.5 mil billones de personas, dos quintos de la población mundial, está ahora en peligro de dengue y que puede haber unos 50 millones de casos de infección alrededor del mundo cada año. La prevención por lo tanto sigue siendo el esfuerzo dominante para detener el aumento constante en esta enfermedad, que actualmente causa alrededor de 24.000 muertes cada año...

Dengue fever is also caused by a Flavivirus, and is spread by the bite of the A. aegypti mosquito. Dengue fever is not usually fatal, but infection with one of four serotypes can increase later susceptibility to other serotypes, resulting in dengue shock syndrome. The WHO says some 2,5 billion people, two fifths of the world's population, are now at risk cases of dengue infection worldwide every year. Prevention therefore remains key to efforts to stop the stedy increase seen in this disease, which now causes around 24.000 deaths every year...

Prevention of foodborne listeriosis.

Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen that can cause serious invasive illness, mainly in certain well-defined high-risk groups, including elderly and immunocompromised patients, pregnant women, newborns and infants. L. monocytogenes primarily causes abortion, septicemia or meningitis. Contaminated meats (such as hot dogs, delicatessen meats and patiota), dairy products and seafood have all been implicated in outbreaks of listeriosis. The public health importance of listeriosis is not always recognized, particularly because listeriosis is a relatively rare disease compared with other common foodborne illnesses such as salmonellosis or botulism. However, because of its high case fatality rate, listeriosis ranks among the most frequent causes of death due to foodborne illness, ranking second after salmonellosis. L. monocytogenes emerged as an important foodborne pathogen in the latter part of the 20th century. Extensive work has been performed in many countries during the last decade to prevent outbreaks and decrease the incidence of listeriosis. An important reduction occurred in listeriosis incidence in some of these countries during the 90s, suggesting a relationship between preventive measures and incidence decrease of human listeriosis.

Epidemiología de las infecciones por Yersinia enterocolítica / Aspects of the epidemiology of Yersinia enterocolitica: a review

Los brotes recientes de enfermedades transmitidas por los alimentos asociados a Salmonella, Listeria y Yersinia han destacado la importancia del conocimiento de los riesgos microbriológicos a que se expone la población por el consumo de estos alimentos contaminados. Tales brotes afirman la necesiad de mejorar los métodos de detección, del control del medio ambiente y de la vigilancia epidemiológica... Durante la década pasada, numerosos métodos basados en la detección del ADN bacteriano, tales como la PCR o las pruebas de hibridación, han demostrado superioridad por su mayor sensibilidad que supera por lejos la de los medios de cultivos convencionales. Una PCR en tiempo real es un método rápido y específico para la detección de Y. enterocolítica en diferentes muestras, proporcionando una alternativa superior a los métodos de detección actualmente disponibles. Esto permitiría identificar eficientemente los alimentos peligrosos debido a la contaminación con Y. enterocolítica.

Recent outbreaks of foodborne disease linked to Salmonella, Listeria, and Yersinia have highlighted consumer awarenss of microbiological problems in the food supply. Such outbreaks affirm the need form improved testing, environmental monitoring, and epidemiological surveillance. In the case of Yersinia, this bacterium's role as a newly emerged foodborne pathogen is discussed... During the las decade, numerous DNA-based methods, such as PCR and colony hybridization assays, have been designed to detect pathogenic Y. enterocolítica in natural samples more rapidly and with better sensitivity than can be achieved by culture methods. A rapid and specific real-time PCR method for the detection of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica bacteria in natural samples, provides a superior alternative to the corrently available detection methods and makes it possible to identify the foods at risk for Y. enterocolitica contamination.

Seguridad de los alimentos irradiados / Safety of irradiated foods

La incidencia de enfermedades transmitidas por alimentos causadas por varios microorganismos patógenos es un problema significativo en todo el mundo. Tolerancia cero a la contaminación bacteriana implica considerar la inclusión de "la radiación en la mesa". El proceso de irradiar los alimentos podría tener una contribución significativa en el control de las enfermedades transmitidas por alimentos.

The incidence of foodborne disease caused by several pathogens remains a significant problem worldwide. Zero tolerance to bacterial contamination means considering the inclusion of "radiation on the table". The process of food irradiation could make a significant contribution in the control of such diseases.

La evolución viral y su relevancia para los virus transmitidos por alimentos / Viral evolution and its relevance for virus transmission via food

La comprensión científica requiere tanto comprobaciones científicas como teorías que puedan explicar esos hechos en una manera coherente. La evolución es, en este contexto, tanto un hecho como una teoría. Es un hecho incontrovertible que los organismos han cambiado, o evolucionado, durante la historia de la vida en la Tierra...La incongruencia que resulta de intentar explicar hechos de una gran complejidad mediante conceptos elaborados para explicar procesos muy simples sólo puede conducir a nuestra disciplina a una gran confusión. Ante esta situación, parece razonaable insistir en la necesidad de elaborar una base teórica sustentada en datos reales (no en hipótesis), que sea capaz de integrar y explicar coherente y cientificamente los fenómenos y los procesos biológicos pasados y, como consecuencia, haga posible una mejor comprensión de los actuales.

Scientific understanding requires both facts and theories that can explain those facts in a coherent manner. Evolution, in this context, is both a fact and a theory. It is an incontrovertible fact that organisms have changed, or evolved, during the history of life on Earth...The incongruity resulting from try to explain facts with a huge complexity by means fo concepts elaborated to explain very simple processes only can lead to our discipline into a big confussion. At this point it seems reasonable to insist in the need of a new theoretical framework, not founded on hypothesis but on real data. A theoretical framework able to coherently integrate, and scientifically explain, the biological processes of the past and therefore, able to provide a better understanding of the present ones.